165 IPAs have been identified in the UK – 47 in Scotland, 90 in England, 24 in Wales and 4 in Northern Ireland.

Geography and habitats

Sitting at the edge of Europe and facing the Atlantic Ocean, the unique climate, geology and landscape of the UK conspire to foster exceptional plant communities. Major habitats, such as grasslands, heathlands, wetlands, woodlands and coasts, help define the biogeographic zone and characterise the countryside.

UK IPAs

IPAs cover 1.6 million ha of land, or approximately 7% of the UK. Nearly all of the UK’s IPAs are afforded a degree of statutory protection, at least in part, thanks to the extensive network of protected sites such as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs). 60% of the UK’s threatened plants and lichens are listed as priorities for conservation.

Taxonomic Groups

A key feature in the identification of UK IPAs is the consid­eration of a wide range of taxonomic groups – with IPAs identified for lichens, bryophytes, marine algae, stoneworts, freshwater algae and vascular plants (including arable plant assemblages). Almost a third (32%) of UK IPAs have lichen features, 29% have bryophyte features and 16% have stonewort features. In total, 38% of UK IPAs have been identified for non-vascular plant features.

This wide taxonomic coverage has been critical to the establishment and acceptance of UK IPAs as a conservation tool, accurately reflecting the true importance of these areas. It pro­vides a focus on often lesser known, understood or studied groups and highlights the diversity and complexity of sites and areas.

Protections and partnerships

The identification of the UK IPA network was a major landmark in the UK for plant diver­sity, however it has been through subsequent focus and partnership action that IPAs have enabled targeted conservation action. The UK IPA network has influenced agri-environment schemes, the assessment of plant diversity within protected landscapes, and strategies such as National Park Action Plans and site management plans.

UK IPA features, and the threats to them, have provided the catalyst for developing part­nerships of landowners and managers to deliver large scale conservation work. For exam­ple, the removal of Rhododendron ponticum at a catchment-scale from Atlantic woodland IPAs in Wales, and large scale dune conservation across England and Wales.

Historical Background

The incredible and unique plant diversity of the Soqotra Archipelago was first systematically studied by Isaac Bayley Balfour in 1880. Then in greater depth and detail by the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and other institutes from the mid-1980s onwards. This resulted in current floristic knowledge that recognises 850 vascular plant species of which 340 are endemic in an island system of only ca. 3,600 square kilometres.

World Heritage List

Approximately one third of the endemic plant species are threatened based upon recent reassessment using the IUCN Red List criteria, with unique vegetation assemblages rich in endemic taxa identified across the islands. As a result, Soqotra was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2008 and is therefore the most famous plant biodiversity “hotspot” in the Arabian Peninsula. The people of Soqotra have long relied upon this diversity for their day-to-day requirements.

Important Plant Areas (IPAs)

While formal protected areas and informal target zones have been identified on Soqotra, the designation of these did not follow any formal criteria, therefore distribution data for plant species and vegetation types was gathered, assessed and aggregated into Important Plant Areas that meet selection criteria across the Archipelago. Areas recognised as species rich and outstanding examples of vegetation types are the foundation of the IPAs described.

18 IPAs have been provisionally designated covering approximately 32% of the Archipelago. All 113 threatened endemic plant species and all unique vegetation types are covered by this IPA network. While a range of pre-existing target areas were compared to proposed IPAs only the latter – with minor adjustments and additions – achieves such coverage of plant and habitat diversity.

Threats

While a number of IPAs and included species are threatened on Soqotra – often by uncontrolled development and a lack of environmental planning and enforcement – others are more remote but are clearly suffering from the combined effects of a changing climate and significant changes in traditional land management practices including changes in animal management. Other threats include a lack of tourism infrastructure and the effects of extreme weather events. A number of narrow endemics are extremely rare and occur in specialised niches and are at risk through their rarity alone.

Geography

These IPAs are located throughout the country within each of the nationally recognised Mediterranean bioclimatic divisions: humid, sub-humid, semi arid, arid and Saharan. A large number of sites are mountainous, located within the parallel coastal and the eastern mountain ranges as well as in the isolated mountains of the interior.

They include the endemic plant centres of the Northern Levant such as Kurd Dag IPA; centres of endemism in Antioch and Amanus; sites capturing EuroSiberian plant species at their southern limit and the best examples of Cedrus libani and Abies cilicica forests (Slenfeh-Jaubet al Berghl), which are threatened across the whole Mediterranean.

Syria is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Basin and forms an integral part of the Levant countries. Syrian territory includes 183km of Mediterranean Sea coast, plains, mountain ranges, plateaus and semideserts. Over 60% of the country is a plateau between 200-600m and mountains between 600 and 2000m form the remainder. The climate is Mediterranean with precipitation in the cool seasons of the year, summers are hot and dry.

Plant Diversity

The Syrian flora includes 3077 species belonging to 133 families and 919 genera, the majority of which are Mediterranean or Irano-Tauranian. The level of local endemism is exceptionally high in Syria. Restricted range endemic species can be found in nearly every IPA. Threatened wetlands are also represented in the Syrian IPA inventory.

Protections and Threats

7 of the IPAs in Syria are partially or totally protected, including one Ramsar site (internationally important wetland), and three have some form of management plan active on part or all of the site.

The most frequent threat to IPAs in Syria is the unsustainable collection of herbs and medicinal plants (affecting 91% of sites), closely followed by the threat from overgrazing. Deforestation (specifically gathering leaves and branches for fodder and wood for fuel) is another major cause for concern, which is exacerbated by burning on 14 IPAs. Tourism development and extraction of minerals are concerns on 50% of Syrian IPAs.

Palestine is situated in Southwest Asia in the east of the Mediterranean basin. The targeted area (5800 square km) has 1600 vascular plant species – tremendously high plant diversity for such a small area. It has three biogeographical areas: Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian (semi-desert) and extreme desert. Many habitats present are associated with the climatic transition between Mediterranean and extreme desert.

Plant species

6 IPAs have been identified in Palestine. 3 contain single country endemics and all sites contain species that have very restricted distributions but cross adjacent borders for example Iris haynei in Palestine and Israel. The current distribution of many of these locally endemic species is not known.

20 IPAs have been identified in Egypt. 10 are located within the Mediterranean region and 5 of these contain single country endemics or very restricted range species.

Geography

Egypt is situated in the southeast of the Mediterranean Sea. Her coast includes the delta of the River Nile which bifurcates north of Cairo into two branches that enter the Mediterranean at Rosetta and Damietta promontories.

Egypt’s diverse flora contains over 2,300 vascular plant species and subspecies, and approximately 190 species and subspecies of mosses and hepatics. This reflects the long Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts combined with Egypt’s position between Africa and Asia. Four floral zones are recognised: Mediterranean-Sahara regional transition zone, Sahara- Sindian regional zone, Irano-Turanian regional centre of endemism and Sahel regional transition zone.

Habitats

The Mediterranean IPAs of Egypt consist of five coastal lakes or lagoons, including the only oligotrophic hypersaline lake on the Egyptian Mediterranean coast and three lakes within the Nile Delta; as well as the limestone mountains of North Sinai, the coastal ridges and depressions of Omayed Biosphere Reserve, the Moghra Oasis, the oolitic sands of the Western Mediterranean coastal dunes and the plateau of Sallum on the border with Libya.

Plant Species

Significant species on these sites include the relict patches of Juniperus phoenica populations in North Sinai, Egyptian endemics Astragalus camelorum, Bellevallia salah-eidii, Bromus aegyptiacus, Sinapis allionii, Sonchus macrocarpus (of the coastal lagoons) and Anthemis microsperma, Atractylis carduus var. marmarica, Pancratium arabicum and Zygophyllum album var. album (of the coastal dunes).

Floristically, the richest IPA in Egypt is the mountainous Saint Katherine IPA. It contains around 500 vascular plant species and approximately 50% of Egypt’s endemic plant flora. This huge, protected site covers over 5,000 km2 of South Sinai and rises up to 2641 m; it is outside the Mediterranean region.

Threats

IPAs in Egypt face numerous threats, particularly from overgrazing, tourism and infrastructure related development, eutrophication and mineral extraction.

21 IPAs have initially been identified for northern Algeria. 8 IPAs are entirely or partly located inside national parks, while 13 others enjoy no management or protection measures.

Habitats

Algerian IPAs cover all vegetation stages present in the Mediterranean part of the country and are often marked by a large elevational range, as in the Aurès Massif (100–2,300m) and Djurdjura (600–2,300m). Several coastal IPAs (El Kala 1, Edough Peninsula, Taza and Gouraya National Parks, Sahel d’Oran, Mount Chenoua, Cape Ténès, Trara Mountains et Habibas Islands) have high plant diversity and are rich in restricted range species, which are often highly localised (stenoendemic).

Forested habitats are well represented, particularly with cedars (in Belezma, Djurdjura, Theniet El Had and Chréa National Parks, the Babor Mountains and Aurès Massif) or oaks (Quercus canariensis, Q. suber and Q. ilex). Several IPAs are rich in wetland habitats (El Kala 1 & 2, Edough Peninsula, Guerbes/Senhadja Plain, Djebel Ouahch, and Taza and Chréa National Parks).

Climate

Since Algeria is influenced by the sea, relief and elevation, its climate is classed as ‘temperate extra-tropical Mediterranean’, characterized by a long period of summer drought that varies from 3–4 months on the coast to 5–6 months on the high plains and more than 6 months in the Saharan Atlas. All Mediterranean bioclimates are represented in the north, from perhumid (Babor Mountains) to semi-arid (Sahel d’Oran).

Algerian Flora

The Algerian flora comprises approximately 4,000 taxa in 131 families and 917 genera. There are 464 national endemics (387 species, 53 subspecies and 24 varieties). The number of restricted range or locally endemic taxa in northern Algeria is 407. These include 224 endemic to Algeria alone, 124 shared with Morocco, 58 with Tunisia and one with Sicily.

Some IPAs have a flora with a particularly high proportion of national endemics or stenoendemics, such as Djurdjura National Park with over 25 sub-national and stenoendemics, and El Kala 1 & 2 and the Babor Mountains, each with 20.

Plant diversity

Libya occupies an area of about 1.7 million km2 most of which is desert. The most important areas for plant diversity are the coastal strip and mountains of the Mediterranean coastline (1900km).

In total there are approximately 1,750 plant species in Libya, 4% of which are Libyan endemics. Phytogeographically, the flora is predominantly Mediterranean, with strong links to the Eastern Mediterranean (Palestine to Greece), more so than with the rest of North Africa; particularly strong are the links to Crete. Approximately 50% of the Libyan endemics are endemic to Cyrenaica.

Important Plant Areas

5 IPAs have been identified in Libya to date: Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Tawuorgha Sebka, Jabal Nafusah, Jabal Aweinat and Messak mountain with a further 5 that require study to confirm their status as internationally significant sites for plants (Alheesha, Farwa Island, Mamarica, Jabal Al Harouj and Benghazi coast).

IPAs in Libya are found in the coastal, mountain and desert habitat types. Al Jabal Al Akhdar IPA (The Green Mountain) in the Cyrenaica region of northeast Libya is the largest and most significant IPA in Libya. The unique physiographic and climatic conditions which isolate the mountains of Cyrenaican from the rest of Libya, have resulted in Al Jabal Al Akhdar holding 75 – 80% of the Libyan flora and a significant proportion of Libya’s endemic plant species, despite only covering 1% of the Libyan territory.

The other confirmed Libyan IPAs include the hot springs and open canals of Tawuorgha and the limestone formations of Jabal Nafusah IPA which stretch 500km from the Tunisian border to the Niggaza area on the Mediterranean coast. The latter encompasses a recently established national park Sha afeen.

Threats

Libyan IPAs face several threats including development of tourism infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock, forest cutting for wood and charcoal and the spread of invasive alien species. Unregulated development at the coast is a particular threat. Planning processes are erratic and environmental impact assessments (although required by law) are seldom completed or adhered to.

Habitats

Uganda is botanically unique as the meeting point for a number of Africa’s floras, including influences from the moist Congolian forests in the west to the dry Acacia-Commiphora savanna that extends from north-eastern Uganda into the Horn of Africa.

The topology of the country also varies greatly, from moist plains and valleys associated with the African Great Lakes including Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga, to Afroalpine habitats of Ruwenzori Mountains and Mount Elgon, the former featuring one of the last remaining tropical glaciers in Africa.

Plant Species

Due to this vast range of habitats, Uganda is rich in plant taxa with over 4,800 species, at least 100 of which are endemic or near-endemic to Uganda. Unique Ugandan plant species include the rare cycad species Encephalartos whitelockii, known only from a single site globally, Mpanga Gorge. The E. whitelockii population here represents one of the most concentrated stands of cycads globally, but it has been badly damaged by the construction of a hydroelectric dam leaving the species threatened with extinction.

Threats

With a wealth of biodiversity and finite resources for conservation, prioritisation of the most critical areas will be key to conserving Uganda’s flora. Much of Ugandan economy is dependent upon subsistence agriculture, while there has also been a rise in extractive activities such as mining, oil exploration and logging for timber and fuel in recent years.

Without a clear framework focused on where the most important sites for plant diversity are, there is a great risk of losing unique species and habitats completely. Conservation of such areas will also help protect the vital ecosystem services Uganda’s flora provides, including provision of food and medicines, protection of water resources and soil fertility, and regulation of climate.

The Uganda Important Plant Areas Project

The Uganda Important Plant Areas (IPAs) project began in 2022 and is a partnership between Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Makerere University, under the Tropical Important Plant Areas programme. Activities include collaboration with in-country stakeholders, gathering data on species and habitats of conservation importance, assessing endemic and near-endemic species for the IUCN Red List and researching the threats to biodiversity and conservation activities across Uganda.

Through this work we will identify a network of Important Plant Areas with the ultimate aim of increasing representation of plants within Uganda’s conservation planning and actions.